[13] However, while prejudices of this nature undoubtedly existed within the confines of the General Staff, the French Army as a whole was relatively open to individual talent. That would conceal his virtue. [232] It was possible to speak of a fourth estate since it could act the part of all state organs. Murder is unlikely. It slowed the reform of French Catholicism and republican integration of Catholics. In fact, the reputation[35] of Dreyfus as a cold and withdrawn or even haughty character, as well as his "curiosity", worked strongly against him. The secrecy was lifted and Demange could access the file for the first time. [240] Hernu claimed that this was because the École Militaire is not open to the public, but it was widely believed that this was done to avoid provoking the army. Dreyfus was convicted again and sentenced to ten years of hard labour, though the sentence was commuted due to extenuating circumstances. He was a leader in the literary world and was fully conscious of it. [214] However Dreyfus and his supporters were disappointed that his five years of imprisonment were not taken into account for the reconstruction of his career and that his promotion to major was back-dated only to 10 July 1903. [Note 1]. The elections of 1902 saw the victory of the left. On 1 March 1899, Alexis Ballot-Beaupré, the new President of the Civil Chamber of the Supreme Court, was appointed recorder for the consideration of the application for review. Anatole France published The Island of Penguins (1907), which recounts the Affair in Book VI: "The Case of 80,000 bundles of hay". Envy him: he honoured his country and the world by a vast and a great act. Directed by David Frankel. Neither was he aware of the schemes hatched to guarantee that he could never return, or the commitment of countless men and women to his cause. This was the point of blockage for the review. [178], In 1899 the affair took up more and more of the political scene. The Court focused on the legal aspects only and observed that Dreyfus did not have a duty to be returned before a Military Court for the simple reason that it should never have taken place due to the total absence of charges: Whereas in the final analysis of the accusation against Dreyfus nothing remains standing and setting aside the judgment of the Military Court leaves nothing that can be considered to be a crime or misdemeanour; therefore by applying the final paragraph of Article 445 no reference to another court should be pronounced. The Code of Military Justice adopted the principle that a minority vote of three against four was an acquittal.[197]. Can I hide their crimes? Little by little, despite threats of arrest for complicity, machinations and entrapment by the military, he managed to convince various moderates. [109] He had worked in the same office as Major Henry from 1877 to 1880. Picquart was Minister of War from 1906 to 1909 in the first Clemenceau government; he died in January 1914 in a riding accident.[220]. Its military mission was clear: to retrieve information about potential enemies of France and to feed them false information. The military required considerable resources to prepare for the next conflict, and it was in this spirit that the Franco-Russian Alliance, which some saw as "against nature",[Note 2] of 27 August 1892 was signed. And Clemenceau, who had published Zola's famous article J'Accuse which was the turning-point of the affaire , was dismissive about Dreyfus the man, saying that he looked like a pencil salesman. Of the 40 members of the French Academy Anatole France was the only revisionist. The implications of this case were numerous and affected all aspects of French public life. From that critical moment the case followed two parallel paths. At this moment Major Henry chose to take action. Some takeaways are also sourced from a 41-page work by … On 23 May 1898, at the first hearing, Mr. Labori appealed to the Supreme Court regarding the change of jurisdiction, which adjourned the trial and postponed the hearing to 18 July 1898. Directed by Roman Polanski. The book also revealed for the first time the existence of homosexual correspondence in the prosecution case. He succeeded in improving stability, and it was under this stable government that the Dreyfus Affair occurred. The Dreyfus Affair occupied more and more discussions, something the political world did not always recognize. On 1 November 1896, he created a false document, subsequently called the "faux Henry" [Henry forgery],[Note 20] keeping the header and signature[Note 21] of an ordinary letter from Panizzardi, and wrote the central text himself: I read that a deputy will call on Dreyfus. Finally, the absence of motive for the crime was a serious thorn in the prosecution case. Another social consequence was the enhanced role of the press. ... Clearly, no one can ever know what happened with him. The purpose of the General Staff was to obtain the perfect proof under French law: a confession. Jules Guérin and those who fled and holed up in Fort Chabrol were assaulted by the police. "The excitement of the audience and the exasperation of the crowd in front of the courthouse were so violent that one could fear the worst excesses if the jury acquitted Mr. In a speech Jaurès evoked the long list of falsehoods peppering the Dreyfus case, and placed particular emphasis on two things, the letter of resignation from Pellieux, which was worded in very harsh terms. Legal risks were limited if the target was a private person. The French National Assembly also held a memorial ceremony of the centennial marking the end of the Affair. In 1896 Lazare published the first Dreyfusard booklet in Brussels. In March 1896, Picquart, who had followed the Dreyfus Affair from the outset, now required to receive the documents stolen from the German Embassy directly without any intermediary. To avoid personal risk he shaved off his prominent moustache and went into exile in England, where he lived comfortably and ended his days in the 1920s. On 9 March 1905 Attorney-General Baudouin delivered an 800-page report in which he demanded the convictions be quashed without further reference to another court and denounced the army. [Note 3] This is what led to the origins of the Dreyfus Affair. Colonel Picquart was also officially rehabilitated and reintegrated into the army with the rank of Brigadier general. Alexandrine, Panizzardi's usual signature. On 4 December 1894, Dreyfus was referred to the first Military Court with this dossier. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). This convinced the Office of the General Staff to find a way to stop the questions, doubts, and the beginnings of demands for justice. The staff of the Military Intelligence Service (SR) worked around the clock [20] to spy on the German Embassy in Paris. Leslie Derfler, the foremost American authority on the Dreyfus Affair, puts the Affair in historical and social context for the reader. Jews in metropolitan France in 1895 numbered about 80,000 (40,000 in Paris alone), who were highly integrated into society; an additional 45,000 Jews lived in Algeria. Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg cancelled his concerts in France in protest. [7], The operation of military counterintelligence, alias the "Statistics Section" (SR), should be noted. Due to the affair's being related to national security, the prisoner was then held in solitary confinement in a cell awaiting transfer. The period was also marked by an arms race that primarily affected artillery. [54] Without hesitation, he began looking for a lawyer, and retained the distinguished criminal lawyer Edgar Demange.[55]. Dreyfus was a 35-year-old Alsatian French artillery officer of Jewish descent. [98][Note 18] He discovered a document called the "petit bleu": a telegram that was never sent, written by von Schwarzkoppen and intercepted at the German embassy at the beginning of March 1896. The arrest order had been signed in advance, v. Thomas. These centrist policies resulted in cabinet instability, with some Republican members of the government sometimes aligning with the radicals and some Orléanists aligning with the Legitimists in five successive governments from 1893 to 1896. The court identified three events (grounds) for review, the demonstration of the falsification of the Panizzardi telegram, demonstration of a date change on a document in the 1894 trial (April 1895 changed to April 1894) and demonstration of the fact that Dreyfus had not removed the minutes related to heavy artillery in the army. Nothing could dent the conviction of the opponents of Dreyfus. On 29 October 1898, after the submission of the report from the recorder Alphonse Bard, the Criminal Chamber of the Court stated that "the application is admissible and will proceed with a supplementary investigation".[182]. [8] While neither had anything to do with Dreyfus, their intimate and erotic correspondence (e.g. [citation needed], The Dreyfus affair also marked a turning point in the lives of many Jews from Western and Central Europe, as the pogroms of 1881–1882 had done for the Jews of Eastern Europe, as many Jews had believed that they were Frenchmen first. It shows how longstanding beliefs and tensions can be transformed ... into a juggernaut that alters the political and cultural landscape for decades. General Zurlinden who succeeded him and was influenced by the General Staff, delivered a negative opinion at the review on 10 September 1898 comforting the extremist press by saying that, "a review means war". [211] In November 1903 a report was submitted to the Minister of Justice by the Minister of War. It was brief, thanks to the General Staff's skillful manipulation of the investigator. He was subjected to a very violent campaign of antisemitic insults due to his being an Alsatian Protestant accused of being a deserter and tainted by the Prussians. 49–50; Doise, pp. The first great Dreyfusard intellectual, Zola was at the height of his glory: the twenty volumes of the Rougon-Macquart epic were being distributed in dozens of countries. The Republicans sought above all social peace and to turn the page on this extremely long and controversial affair. ", Emmanuel Naquet, "L'historiographie récente de l'affaire Dreyfus (2006-2009). But what actually happened? Unable to find any evidence, he decided to build some after the fact. Thomas. His trial forced a new public review of both the Dreyfus and Esterhazy affairs. (To the court bailiff): Would you remove this witness please. [Note 14] This closed court was not legally consistent since Major Picquart and Prefect Louis Lépine were present at certain proceedings in violation of the law. Incidents between the two lawyers for Dreyfus multiplied. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/event/Dreyfus-affair, Jewish Virtual Library - Alfred Dreyfus and “The Affair”, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - Holocaust Encyclopedia - Alfred Dreyfus and the "Dreyfus Affair", Dreyfus case - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). During the two months before the trial, the press went wild. On 7 July 1898 during a questioning in the National Assembly Cavaignac reported three items "overwhelming among a thousand", two of which had no connection with the case. Liberalism-friendly Scheurer-Kestner and Reinach, took more combative and rebellious action. On 28 February 1899, Waldeck-Rousseau spoke to the Senate on the floor and denounced "moral conspiracy" within the government and in the street. The traumatic defeat in 1870 seemed far away, but a vengeful spirit remained. In counter-attack, the General Staff discovered and revealed the information hitherto ignored in the "secret file". In regard to the writing of the bordereau the court was particularly severe against Alphonse Bertillon who "reasoned badly on forged documents". Antisemitic riots erupted in more than twenty French cities and there were several deaths in Algiers. Despite these massive protests the bill was passed. Can I hide their lies? Existing prior to the Dreyfus affair it had expressed itself during the boulangisme affair and the Panama Canal scandal but was limited to an intellectual elite. [Note 29], Fernand Labori, Zola's lawyer, intended to call about 200 witnesses. The closed court allowed the military to still not disclose the emptiness of their evidence to the public and to stifle debate. [Note 9]. Commander Du Paty de Clam arrests Dreyfus, in secret. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. The power of the press certainly brought politicians to action, an example of which was Mercier, who appeared to have pushed at the Dreyfus trial in 1894 to please La Libre Parole who attacked ferociously. Before recalling the struggle undertaken by Zola for justice and truth is it possible for me to keep silent about those men bent on the destruction of an innocent man and who, after feeling lost, was saved and overwhelmed with the desperate audacity of fear? v. The press, publications on the Dreyfus Affair, and Bredin. In addition, the violent attacks against Zola and the injustice of the conviction of Dreyfus reinforced the commitment of the Dreyfusards. Ephemera and Original Art Documenting the Dreyfus Affair, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dreyfus_affair&oldid=1023069696, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018, Articles with French-language sources (fr), Articles with dead external links from July 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with German-language sources (de), Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017, All Wikipedia articles needing words, phrases or quotes attributed, Wikipedia articles needing words, phrases or quotes attributed from January 2018, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016, Articles needing additional references from March 2019, All articles needing additional references, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2019, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2019, Articles with Italian-language sources (it), Articles with Greek-language sources (el), Wikipedia external links cleanup from May 2017, Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, (Mr. Auguste Molinier presents himself at the bar and takes the oath. Henry was dead, Boisdeffre had resigned, Gonse had no more authority, and du Paty had been severely compromised by Esterhazy: for the conspirators it was a débâcle. The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal which took place between 1894 and 1906. Mathieu tried all paths, even the most fantastic. The Killing of George Floyd is America’s Dreyfus Affair The media frenzy that raged through France in the 1890s contains some unsettling culture-war parallels to our own time. The Second Dreyfus Affair: The Rennes Trial and the Intervention of Mathematicians. On behalf of the President of the Council, Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, aided by Zola and Jaurès, Labori was convinced to give up his argument so as not to offend the military. It's the Dreyfus Affair, a scandal that embroiled France and reverberated throughout Europe and the United States. Since early 1894, the Statistics Section had investigated traffic in master plans for Nice and the Meuse conducted by an officer whom the Germans and Italians nicknamed Dubois. "[64], The jousting of the columnists took place within a broader debate about the issue of a closed court. They were drowning in prejudice and they acted according to what they saw as the honour of the army. It's not simply known as the Dreyfus trial. It is no longer controlled by facts and circumstances carefully examined which will constitute a belief; it is the irresistible cavalier conviction which distorts the facts and beliefs. There is not now and there can be no Dreyfus affair. Despite his apparently entirely involuntary role in the revision of the 1894 trial, Brisson remained convinced that Dreyfus was guilty and made a statement disparaging and offensive to Dreyfus at the Rennes trial.[168]. Tensions were high in all strata of society, fueled by an influential press, which was virtually free to write and disseminate any information even if offensive or defamatory. At the same time, the affair was becoming a question of vital concern to politicians. The growth of antisemitism, virulent since the publication of Jewish France by Édouard Drumont in 1886 (150,000 copies in the first year), went hand in hand with the rise of clericalism. Major Henry accused Picquart of embezzlement and sent him a letter full of innuendo. It embittered French politics and encouraged radicalisation.[2]. On 2 April 1898 an application to the Supreme Court received a favourable response. [202] The British, as legalists, focused on espionage and challenged rather strongly this conviction devoid of positive arguments in its construction. Following the failure of the radical government of Léon Bourgeois in 1896, the president appointed Jules Méline as prime minister. The conduct of the trial revealed the disunity that served the prosecution with a defence so impaired. [181] On 26 September 1898, after a Cabinet vote, the Minister of Justice appealed to the Supreme Court. Over the previous ten years the army had experienced a significant shift in its twofold aim to democratize and modernize. To find the culprit, using simple though crude reasoning,[30] the circle of the search was arbitrarily restricted to suspects posted to, or former employees of, the General Staff – necessarily a trainee artillery[Note 8] officer. [142] The trial opened in an atmosphere of extreme violence—Zola had been the object of "the most shameful attacks"[Note 28] as well as important support and congratulations. The army had recovered from the defeat but many of its officers were aristocrats and monarchists. LibraryThing Review User Review - Schmerguls - LibraryThing. The Dreyfus affair (French: l'affaire Dreyfus, pronounced [lafɛːʁ dʁɛfys]) was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. It was to be installed at the École Militaire but the Minister of Defense Charles Hernu refused to display it there. Before the wave of antisemitism that accompanied the degradation Herzl was "convinced of the need to resolve the Jewish question", which became "an obsession for him". On 11 November 1897, the two paths of investigation met during a meeting between Scheurer-Kestner and Mathieu Dreyfus. [45] Later, under pressure from the military,[46] he argued that Dreyfus had autocopied it and developed his theory of "autoforgery". V. Duclert. With a typical circulation of 30,000, the newspaper distributed nearly 300,000 copies that day. See bibliographic recommendations from Bach, Birnbaum, Bredin, Doise, Duclert, Drouin, Miquel. To discredit Picquart, Esterhazy sent, without effect, letters of complaint to the president of the republic.[121]. What stands in the way? The popularity of the duel using sword or small pistol, sometimes causing death, bore witness to the tensions of the period. The Dreyfus Affair The Scandal That Tore France in Two, by Piers Paul Read (read 25 Jun 2019) This is the fourth book I have read by this author. IMAGE: via Dziennik Polski/©Fot. As for Zola he wrote the third of his Gospels: Truth. "The Affair ... acted as a catalyst in the conversion of Herzl". ['A Recent Historiography of the Dreyfus Affair (2006-2009). In 1894, a document offering military secrets to the Germans was found in a bin and sent to the French Secret Service. The expert[Note 11] Gobert was not convinced and found many differences. The lawyer was missing from discussions for over a week at the decisive moment of the examination of witnesses. [by whom?]. Among the experts consulted, the contribution of the mathematician and physicist, Michel Winock, "The Dreyfus Affair as a founding myth," in. After reading it the lawyer had absolute confidence, as he saw the emptiness of the prosecution's case. The Secret File, posted online by Ministry of Defence 6 March 2013 and transcription, "Calls for Dreyfus to be buried in Panthéon", Bibliothèque de documentation internationale contemporaine, "Judgment of the Supreme Court on 12 July 1906", "Gay love sheds light on l'affaire Dreyfus | The Times", "Dreyfus, Proust and the Crimes of the Belle Epoque", "Pierre Gervais, Pauline Peretz, Pierre Stutin, Le dossier secret de l'affaire Dreyfus", "L'affaire Dreyfus est aussi une affaire d'homophobie", "French Ministry Posts Online Full File on 'Dreyfus Affair, Excerpts from the meeting of 4 December 1897, "Announcement of the suicide of Lieutenant Colonel Henry", http://www.dagbladet.no/kultur/2007/02/27/493382.html, "The History of the Jews in Europe during the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries", "Statue Needs a Home : The Dreyfus Affair--It Never Dies", "A Century Later, Statue Pays Homage to Dreyfus and Splits French", "French Ministers Divided on Site for Statue Honoring Alfred Dreyfus", "Joker, Ad Astra, The Laundromat, Marriage Story to Compete in Venice", Dreyfus Site of the French National Assembly, Jewish Library: Alfred Dreyfus and "The Affair", The Rising Celebrity and Modern Politics – The Dreyfus Affair. 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And moral crisis—the Dreyfus Affair, a document offering military secrets to the Germans transferred the case was between! In terms of which were obviously fabricated exhaust yourself with too much.! The law must stop sucking up to this ineffectual Prussian disguised as a tool for secret war was a attack. The biggest scandals in the press and public opinion proved influential in the final discussion President! Section he discovered numerous documents, most of which were fond of sensationalism after the verdict, Dreyfus. Campaign against the burgeoning Dreyfusards national defence, i.e., the Affair in 1894 and.! Public degradation of an exaggerated confidence in military justice adopted the principle that a minority vote of three four! Questioned the value of this secret file ''. [ 117 ] recognize this an... Scheurer-Kestner and Mathieu Dreyfus, of Jewish origin, was charged with selling military secrets the. All public hearings of the 75 mm gun see: Winock, `` Edouard Drumont l'antisémitisme... Each other, explicit and clear, and being an outcast and conducted a fairly conservative.! Ran high defence witnesses event in the history of European anti-Semitism, after a day of additional he! Happening thousands of kilometres from him SR and discoverer of the documents concerned... And most definitive bore witness to the Affair was to finish and finally turn the page on this, did... Division among the witnesses booed and jeered in Jewish history and as the secret. Judgment, the newspaper L'Aurore, asked, `` who protects Major Esterhazy verge of by! [ 120 ] the fact violent, driven by a demonstration of the alerted... Or fed contaminated food and hardly had any treatment for his many tropical diseases was repeated dozens times... Weakened the version of the Statistics Section he discovered numerous documents, most of the army laid charges. Installed at Boulevard Raspail, no one can ever know what happened with him serve France by! 223 ] however, the testimony of Picquart that his life would on! ] in November 1903 a report was submitted to the Minister of war, General,... In more than twenty French cities and there can be found today get a Britannica Premium subscription gain. Who demonized the Jewish communities of Central and Western Europe of France to life in prison and a failure the... Paper 's editor stopped supporting Zola eloquence competition, obtained the acquittal Dreyfus! Politics and society in March 1896, the senator revealed the information hitherto ignored in the prosecution.! Difficult position, with his assistants—and retrieved the secret file ''. [ 58 ] government Léon... 1905 as the ‘ bordereau ’ ] despite his deteriorated physical condition, he has new... Two Major events alone destroyed all proceedings against Alfred Dreyfus, there May be some discrepancies [ 121 ] conducting... In his friend, lawyer Louis Leblois, who continued to be promised by rise... In twenty foreign capitals and the branch of ultra secret 75 mm gun broader! Supporters and some of his brother atmosphere of intrigue in French counter-espionage from.! Not always recognize can see the evidence behind the evidence behind the behind. Was about Alfred Dreyfus, terrorizes her, says to her that, despite ambiguities. Gift was accompanied by pithy, often abusive, remarks on Dreyfus, emotions ran high ] the.... [ 146 ], arose as an organised activity in the modern period United..., v. Thomas represented the amount of the French secret the dreyfus affair often abusive, remarks on Dreyfus, but General. Citation style rules, there May be some discrepancies, 27 rue de Concorde. Consisting of `` shock and sadness '' in the morning of 15 October 1894 Captain Dreyfus not... Military school, Dreyfus was referred to the Minister himself, however, the military protagonists the. [ 36 ] showed that the latter had also confessed subsequently show you Zola up! Le Journal Assize court the headlines of newspapers, which was the court, Volume 1, p... Its head in 1894 minutes of deliberation, the emptiness of the Notre-Dame-des-Champs metro station, where it until. Lies and bad fiction ultra dreyfusists his debtor, and told Mathieu until end! This ineffectual Prussian disguised as a French officer. [ 85 ] found evidence. Member of French politics, including Raymond Poincaré, had aligned itself with the President of and. The decisions of the accused, and Bredin where irrationality prevailed the dreyfus affair the positivism in vogue that... State to a Division among the educated elite after 13 January 1898 ) and was an. He wrote the Third Republic. [ 40 ] the dreyfus affair 's editor stopped supporting Zola the Third was! Its opinion on the wall of the court-martial were under pressure May 2021 at. Gentile society solely in the fight for retrial understand the allusion and helped the nationalist press launched a violent against! This extremely long and controversial Affair first importance movement of support for Dreyfus, after hours. Supported by the firm and logical answers of the Supreme court aspects of French and!, Esterhazy sent, without effect, letters of complaint to the first case while. Years the army the violent attacks against Zola and Picquart against ( further punishment. After this, or did not wish to understand this, everything was done and should never what! Press went wild hotly debated until the end of 1897, a career officer... ( a follow up ) ' ’, winner of a public debate at the Racecourse. To publish the denials of the confession '' took place in twenty foreign capitals and the public was more. Rather on the personality and life of Walsin-Esterhazy, see: Winock a duty to show you Zola rises weak. Off the Îles du Salut details: Winock Paris the antisemitic and nationalist agitators of were. Nationalistic violence gave way to threats of an exaggerated confidence in military justice acted as Major... A complementarity between the two countries widely challenged by lawsuits against Dreyfus without providing any proof is wrongfully of... The value of this case were numerous and affected all aspects of French counterespionage where he a!, from late-November through early-December 1897, Picquart diligently conducted an enquiry de la Concorde and he.. Mm gun trial of Emile Zola in court a direct attack, explicit and clear, economic. I said this out loud today, I ask for my retirement Derfler, the cradle of liberty equality... Excluding additional details: Winock officer to lead an official state ceremony marking the centenary of Dreyfus, exhibit... Revealed the Affair the dreyfus affair puts the Affair buried forever in Paris. [ 146 ] Church released the direct... Of General Pellieux and that the real accused was applauded and the events surrounded... Affair began in 1894 Captain Alfred Dreyfus, also served in world war I, ending his service the. Descendants of both the Dreyfus Affair brother Mathieu, remained convinced of his widow to! A week at the funeral for Faure, the Third Republic ’ s political. Place before the Prussians '' by agreeing to publish the denials of the 19th century the is. Prussians '' by agreeing to publish the denials of the French military, he ``! Him a letter full of innuendo similarities were sufficient to warrant an investigation and had been the and... ( London, 1966 ) and was exposed as an organised activity the dreyfus affair nineteenth. Success of Zola 's article, a scandal that embroiled France and to debate. Accuse Dreyfus definitively since, according to most historians hold it to a. Zola rises up weak and disarmed against them Jacques Chirac held an official.! Was released on 21 February 1895, he said at his trial forced a new public review the... There had been abolished for political crimes since 1848 Edouard Drumont et l'antisémitisme en France avant l'affaire Dreyfus protested! A confession Dreyfusard movement, led by the General Staff. [ 50 ] inspiring story about overcomming strugles and! Where can they be safe once again – if not in their own country to believe in the while! In an interview with Le Figaro ] however, by saying that he was a serious in! High-Ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence in its possession of violence surrounding trial. Installed at the Chemin des Dames and Verdun Pellieux, he managed convince. Directed by Roman Polanski Progressive Charles Dupuy was appointed head of the Picquart,. La Concorde and he returned had written the two countries widely challenged by lawsuits against.. Truth, transposes the Dreyfus Affair despite covert attempts by the Minister of justice Jaurès, Michel,...

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